Access to Modern Energy

Introduction - General Importance of Access to Energy

Access to energy is a prerequisite of human development. Energy is needed for individual survival, it is important for the provision of social services such as education and health and a critical input into all economic sectors from household production or farming, to industry . The wealth and development status of a nation and its inhabitants is closely correlated to the type and extent of access to energy. The more ready usable energy and the more efficient energy converting technologies are available, the better are the conditions for development of individuals, households, communities, the society and its economy. Thus, improving access to energy is a continuous challenge for governments and development organisations.

Despite this, approximately 2,7 billion people, almost half the world's population, are deprived of clean and energy efficient cooking technologies and around 1,3 billion have no access to electricity. The vast majority of these energy poor households live in rural areas where they have to rely on traditional energy sources and technologies while being out of reach of advanced energy services and electrification programs.

Common Understanding of Energy Poverty and Energy Access

There is a general consensus that households which use candles, wick and hurrican kerosene lamps as a sole lighting source and which cook on three stone fires are considered to be energy poor, i.e. excluded from access to electricity and efficient and clean cooking technologies. However, it has proved to be more difficult to define positively what access to advanced energy technologies and services such as electricity and modern cooking technology means. The owner of a torch (or flash-light) which he or she uses in addition to candles does certainly not have access to electricity in a broad sense. But what about small solar home systems providing electricity for a few light bulbs and a radio? Can these small systems be considered as access to advanced energy systems or are they only "illuminating poverty"? Or should "access" mean to have enough electric power to run for example a refrigerator and other household appliances? Then how many and which appliances? Mechanical power for milling grain etc is often a critical energy supply to many small farmers but is “access” having an improved hand grinding tool, or a diesel mill in the village, or the next village? 

There are no obvious minimum levels or standards to answer these questions. Gaining access to improved energy services is not a sudden event, but a continous process of improvement. Thus, any definition of a basic threshold for energy access will be in a certain way arbitrary. Nevertheless, it would be helpful to have a common framework of understanding about basic characteristics of adequate access to different energy sources and technologies. Quantitative variables based on general indicators would allow to make international campaigns and targets such as Sustainabe Energy for All more transparent and comprehensible. At the same time a widely accepted set of indicators and variables would provide the necessary tools for monitoring and reporting progress and performance of access initiatives and programs. 

Some international statistics consider the step from biomass (firewood, charcoal) to LPG, gas or electricity for cooking and the connection to the national grid as threshold for access. However, definitions based on grid access and a switch from biomass fuel would have a tremendously negative impact on the strategy and approaches of poverty oriented programs. They would exclude a large number of people, who will under no circumstances obtain grid electricity and LPG in the near to medium term future. It would make the current energy apartheid experienced by poor households even worse. In fact, strategies focusing on energy access by rapidly extending electricity grid and LPG supply will favor urban areas as it is easier and cheaper to provide electricity and LPG to a densely populated area. Providing grid-based electricity to rural households is much more difficult, slow, and expensive, as is establishing the distribution system for LPG and other commercial fuels. Rural households with their typical low electricity consumption and incomes are not attractive clients for a grid-based electricity utility. Even for subsidized programs, grid extension to those households will often not be an economically, technologically and developmentally appropriate solution. Therefore, although grid extension to poor people is to be encouraged whenever reasonable, new access to energy services through grid or gas distribution extension outside urban areas will not happen at large scale and so the goal of universal access on those terms would not be realistic for a foreseeable future.

In terms of focusing international development support which seeks to benefit poor people directly, it is more appropriate to identify and promote other options to provide what could be called basic energy services at fairly low investment costs without having to wait for grid electricity. These options are evolving solutions rather than in all cases a final solution focusing first of all on the poverty dimension of energy access. The "right"  option depends on whether it is affordable, sustainable and fits the needs of rural and peri-urban households, institutions, and private firms for a certain period. As a minimum requirement it must improve living conditions fairly quickly for a large number of people, thus contribute to the socio-economic development. The temporary solutions may then shift over time until the conditions are satisfied for other supplies, perhaps even grid or infrastructure based to become attractive in the distant future.

The Poverty Dimension of Energy Access

If the ultimate goal of development cooperation is to end poverty it is crucial to orient also energy activities towards that goal. That means the starting point for defining the role of energy access is the kind of energy based services needed to change the life of poor people in a significant and sustainable way. The supply of energy has to be related to these services. Thus all energy based services and technologies contribute to end energy poverty if they have a direct positive impact on basic living conditions.
To specify the role of access to modern energy it is worthwhile to consider the different dimensions of poverty.

According to the OECD-DAC Guidelines on Poverty Reduction  the life of poor households is charactericed by:

• low economic capabilities - the ability to earn an income, to consume and to have assets,
• low human capabilities based on health, education, nutrition, clean water and shelter,
• low political capabilities including human rights, influence over public policies and political priorities,
• low socio-cultural capabilities concern the ability to participate as a valued member of a community,
• low protective capabilities enabling people to withstand economic and external shocks.

Overcoming poverty across all these five dimensions requires a variety of changes at the societal and personal level. Access to energy is relevant to all five dimensions.  The political and economic conditions and the expansion of the infrastructure must allow people to earn more income. Social institutions such as schools and health centers need to provide affordable services for poorer population groups and the personal skills of the people must be improved. Access to energy is relevant to all five dimensions and to all these different levels. It is obvious that the energy requirements vary between the different levels and whether the focus is on productive use or health or domestic living conditions. Social welfare institutions like schools and health centers have specific energy needs, which depend from the type of services they are supposed to provide. Consequently, social institutions need specific categorized standards for access to modern energy technologies. The same is true for enterprises. Many shopkeepers only need light to be able to offer their product during dawn. Restaurants will need at least energy efficient cook stoves. Some may need a refrigerator to store perishable products. Blacksmiths can provide better services if they can use welding equipment. Food enterprises generally require energy for cooled storage of agricultural or fishery products and the value adding processing of these products. Consequently, it is necessary to develop specific access indicators for the different levels and categories.
The complexity of the basic energy requirements are best reflected by multidimensional indicators that provide detailed and accurate information about different energy poverty or access parameters. The different indicators can be aggregated in a composite index calculated from a number of variables. The index values allow an overall comparative assessment of energy poverty and to benchmark performance in general terms. Complex multidimensional indicators are best suited for the analysis of energy situations of communities, regions, countries or continents. However, they are not an appropriate tool to define whether an individual person or household, a social institution or private enterprise have to be considered to be energy poor or provided with modern energy access. Energy access is easier to describe for individual groups when standards are specific for the different levels and not mixed.

Basic Energy Access on Household Level

Improved energy supply strengthens the different capabilities on individual and household level. The most immediate impacts are achieved through modern cooking technologies, electric light and electric information and communication technologies. Energy efficient, modern cooking technologies improve food preparation and consumption, reduce expenditures and/or collection time for fuels, and reduce indoor air pollution (IAP) (direct impact on economic, human and protective capabilities). 

Improvedprovides children the possibility to study after dark, parents the freedom to do some of their housework during evening hours or to participate more actively in social life (direct impact on economic, human, socio-cultural capability). With bright light all household members generally feel more secure from theft, violence, and animal attacks. Households having electricity can more frequently use mobile phones, radio and TVs which increases  the access to economic, political and cultural information and knowledge significantly(direct impact on economic, human, political, socio-cultural capabilities). 

Thus, a significant improvement of the living conditions of poor households could be achieved if:

• all household members can work, study or relax under sufficient bright light for at least 5 hours per day.
• households have the cooking facility to prepare typical local hot meals and berages for all household members,
• households can use either a land line or a mobile phone, whenever needed, and use a radio and/or small TV for several hours a day, 
• all energy sources and technologies (lamp, stove) are not hazardous to health especially not emit high amounts of particulate matter and fulfill basic safety standards, and
• expenditures for energy do not overburden the household income or the available working hours of the household members.  

 There are other additional energy related factors that also have a tremendous impact on poverty and all well being, such as  , milling and grinding of food and space temperature regulation. However, people don't need necessarily access to certain energy sources and technologies like electricity or mobile phones to meet the energy needs of these services. For these services the baseline is manual labour at household level; improvements could be electrically driven pumps and mills, with diesel a regular alternative. However, if and when such improvements are made, provision of the energy service nearly always shifts from the household sphere to the community.
Therefore, it is reasonable to link a basic energy access definition for households to those services where advanced energy sources are essential.  

Availability of Bright Light

 While most developed countries have norms on lighting intensities that should be provided in e.g. schools, hospitals etc, there’s no universal definition of “enough light”. For the light-flux that should be provided in order to provide basic access with regard to lighting, a value of 300 lumen for a household of up to 5 people, during 4 or 5 hours per day. It’s the light of e.g. a 25 W incandescent bulb, providing enough ambient light to light a room ánd, when hanging above a table, enough light for the people around it to perform some dedicated task. Also a gas lamp or pressurized kerosene lamp can provide such lighting. In comparison, a candle provides approximately 12 lumen, definitely not enough to perform such tasks.

Light-flux is not an appropriate yard stick in all situations. For task-lights the light intensity on the working surface (the illuminance) is actually a more relevant. A value of 100 lux covering the surface size of a large book (0,1 m²) in a distance of 0,8 m is considered as sufficient for one person.  This intensity should be available again during 4 or 5 hours per day.
Through the characteristics of the various lamps, the above values can be converted into required amounts of electricity, gas and / or kerosene. Given the differences between ambient lighting and (just) task light as indicated above, thereby for lighting two levels should be defined.

Adaquate Cooking and Heating Facility

 Table 1 is summarizing the indicators and translating them into exemplary figures for energy carriers or technologies.

Category	Direct Service Indicator	Indirect Indicator (Energy Technology)	Indirect Indicator (Amount of Energy)
	all household members can work, study or relax under sufficient bright light for at least 5 hours per day which means 300 lumen on houshold level for at least 5 hours a day or 100 lux over 0,1 m2 during 5 hours, per person per day	kerosene pressure lamp, gas lamp, 9 W CFL lamp, LED lamps of sufficient brightness.	25 Wh in case of a 25 W incandescent lamp (25x5/5 Wh) 9 Wh in case of a 9 W CFL lamp  (9x5/5 Wh), 5 Wh in case of a high efficient LED lantern (60 lm/W)  35 g LPG for a gas lamp 0,1 l kerosene (0.5 l/h / 5) for pressure lamp per person per day.
	low fire hazard through light equipment	safety tested kerosene and gas lamps, electric lamps
	low level of particulate matters (see also cooking) emitted by light device	kerosene pressure lamps, gas lamps, electric lamps
	enough energy to prepare two hot meals per day which means 10 megajoule fuel per person per day (assuming that about 5000 kilojoule is sufficient to prepare a hot meal per person)	1 kg firewood per person per day in combination with an improved coook stove, or 0.3 kg charcoal or 0.04 kg LPG or 0.2 litres of kerosene or ethanol per person per day	Use of modern fuels (LPG, biogas, improved briquettes etc) or owner of an energy-efficient, clean and safe stove certified according to international or national standards.
	Annual mean concentrations of particulate matter (PM2.5) < 10 μg/m3 in households caused by stove	smokeless cook stove, cook stoves with chimney, gas cookers, electric cookers
	low fire hazard of cooking equipment	insulated cook stoves, safety tested cook stoves
Information and Communications	access to fixed line or mobile phone  use of a radio for at least 4 hours or a small TV for at least 1,5 hours a day. [	10 kWh per year and household (7 W x 4 hours x 365 days or 20 W x 1,5 x 333 days)	Owner of a radio or TV, which can be run on rechargeable battery or grid/mini-grid power or access to minimum of 13.6 Wh per year and Owner of a fixed line or mobile phone or owner of a electricity source with mobile phone charging plug.
Affordability, Accessibility	expenditures for energy do not exceed 10% of the household income or do not require more than 10% of the working hours of a household member	low cost fuels and energy technologies and/or highly energy efficient energy technologies

In extremely hot or cold regions access to modern energy is also urgently needed to regulate the indoor air temperature in huts and houses. In these cases indicators such as maximum or minimum air temperatures have to be defined as basic standard for acceptable living conditions, which may be achieved through fans, ventilators or space heating .

Social welfare institutions like schools and health centers have specific energy needs, which depend from the type of services they are supposed to provide. Consequently, social institutions need specific categorized standards for access to modern energy technologies.

The same is true for enterprises. Many shopkeepers only need light to be able to offer their product during dawn. Other may need a refrigators to store perishable products. Blacksmith can provide better services if they can use welding equipment. Thus again, specific access standards have to be defined for the different categories of productive use.

The present paper is focusing on access to modern energy on household level and will therefore not go deeper into the discussion on access to energy for social institutions and productive use.

In addition to the definition of minimum standards there are attemps to develop an energy access index . Such an index would allow to describe different levels of access to modern energy services and to identify energy needs. Based on the index criteria governments and international organizations could decide which energy access level for which target group they want to address with specific programs. The above mentioned criteria would form the threshold beyond which the minimum access to modern energy services starts.  

Complementary Remarks

Any definition of energy access is only useful if it is measurable and trackable at reasonable levels of cost and effort. The definition must allow to monitor and evaluate progress and success of projects and help to take actions.

 

Common definitions of “energy access” and “energy poverty” are characterized by the following aspects:

• “access to energy” is commonly mistaken as “access to electricity”;
• energy access is commonly measured in “electrification rate” or access to “modern” cooking fuels such as LPG;
• energy poverty is commonly measured in average kWh consumed per person;

This leads to a situation where national governments plan to increase domestic electricity consumption in order to achieve higher human development. “Cause” and “effect” are basically exchanged and electricity consumption becomes a purpose for itself.
Energy used by (particularly rural) population in developing countries is much more than just electricity (wood products, petroleum products, etc.).

A concept for “energy poverty” has to consider that…:

• Energy is not a purpose for itself, but a means to an end: the relevant basic energy services of human life (cooking, space heating, lighting…)
• Basic energy services are required for people to fulfil their basic needs (nutrition, safe drinking water, housing, social services, access of information, and participation in social life…);
• Energy poverty should measure to what extend the fulfilment of basic needs has been undermined (by a lack of energy services). This is a complex assessment beyond an easy indicator such as kWh per person.

A concept for “energy access” has to consider the following criteria:

• Availability (physical presence in a suitable distance);
• Affordability (seasonal purchase power; priorities of target groups…);
• Suitability (reliability of access, cultural acceptability, convenience…);
• Energy-diversification of households as a coping strategy;
• Sustainability: Long-term availability of energy services, avoidance of negative economic, social and environmental impacts
• Most important: energy access definitions should avoid technological dimensions and focus on economical dimensions such as energy services / usage. Consumer preferences are defined by specific demand for light, heat, etc.

Given the giant task of combating energy poverty, target-oriented action is required. Quantitative targets facilitate management, benchmarking, monitoring, compliance, verification etc. An international framework like the MDG is best suited to set normative and quantitative access targets for a minimum provision of energy services. Nevertheless, it is important to respect and support the definition of national objectives and political targets.

Distribution of Access

Electrification has the potential to open doors to many essential services such as refrigeration in clinics, lighting in schools and homes, battery charging and diversified livelihoods, yet over a quarter of the world's population lack access. There are over 30 countries where more than half the population are without access.

Of the 32 countries with an electrification rate of less than 50%, 26 are located in sub-Saharan Africa where the average rate is just 26%. This geographic distribution is not only evident on a national level but also within countries, where rural areas have considerably lower electrification rates. In sub-Saharan Africa the rural electrification rate is just 8%.

In South Asia the electrification rate is 60-65%. Nevertheless, the absolut number of unelectrified households is as high as in Sub-Saharan Africa. Most of these households live in India. Per capita consumption of electricity in South Asia is the lowest after Sub-Saharan Africa.

In addition to insufficient access to electricity, over 3 billion people worldwide are reliant on solid fuels, [http://www.who.int/indoorair/en/ including biomass fuels such as wood, dung, agricultural residues, and coal, for cooking. In at least 45 countries, primarily in sub-Saharan Africa and developing Asia, more than three-quarters of the population are dependent on these solid fuels. As with electrification, those in rural areas have far lower access to modern fuels and services.

Benefits of Energy Access

Energy can be a powerful vehicle for the provision of essential services such as education, healthcare and clean water. The time burden associated with essential tasks is an important signifier of energy-poverty yet energy technologies can reduce the disproportionate time spent by poor households on basic activities. Access to energy services can help communities meet basic needs and stimulate social, economic and environmental development.

Livelihood Benefits

Energy access has the potential to alleviate poverty through stimulating rural livelihood options. This can occur via the establishment of new energy-based industries, creating employment in manufacture, construction and maintenance. Energy access can allow households to engage in a more diverse range of income-generating activities as well as make pre-existing activities more efficient. In particular, this diversification will make rural families far less dependent on natural resources as their sole form of income. Nearly 60% of the population in low income countries rely on agriculure, forestry and fishing for their livelihoods. This figure rises to over 90% in some countries. With the necessary infrastructure to ensure sustainability, new livelihoods developed via energy access can have a huge impact on long term poverty reduction.

Health

Modern energy access has the potential to improve health in rural areas both directly- by powering healthcare facilities- and indirectly, by providing cleaner fuel sources and reducing debilitating labor.
The inefficient combustion of solid fuels combined with inadequate ventilation contributes to poor health in many households. These high levels of indoor air pollution often result in decreased pulmonary function, particularly amongst women and children. According to the WHO, approximately 1.6 million premature deaths are attributable annually to indoor air pollution, making it the second largest environmental health risk factor in the world. Indoor air pollution is also responsible for 38 million disability adjusted lost years (DALY), where one DALY represents one healthy year of life lost by an individual due to disease or adverse health conditions, which in turn has numerous impacts on income generation, livelihoods and education.
Furthermore, this dependency on biomass resources such as fuelwood and the lack of intermediary means of transportation means that increasingly large distances are traveled with these heavy loads, often resulting in debilitating back conditions, particularly impacting women and children.
This is also having widespread implications for the natural environment in vulnerable regions, with biomass fuel sources rapidly depleting, placing even greater pressure on the poor just to meet basic needs.

Clean Water

Energy based technologies can help ensure that communities have access to one of the most basic necessities, clean water, by aiding in both the distribution and purification of water supplies. 17% of the world's population do not have access to an improved water source with this value rising to over 45% in sub-Saharan Africa.

This lack of a clean and steady water supply limits agricultural activity and results in easily preventable diseases, poor hygiene and inadequate sanitation. The World Health Organization found unsafe water, hygiene, and sanitation to be the world's largest environmental health risk factor annually responsible for over 1.7 million deaths. Energy technologies such as solar, wind and hydraulic ramp pumps can aid in redistributing the water supply to the areas in which it is most needed whilst application of simple solar distillation techniques can improve water purity.

Education

The impacts of energy access on education are often indirect, with one linkage being to the issue of time burden. Improved energy resources can reduce the time and labor required to achieve certain tasks such as collecting fuelwood and water as well as mechanizing many activities. This in turn could lead to increased enrolment of children in schools, since their household roles are no longer as consuming. In addition, access to lighting in the home increases the time available for study and hence may impact on achievement levels. Lighting at the schools themselves can remove restrictions on school times making night classes a viable possibility or allowing schools to double as community centers in the evenings. Electrification can also affect education infrastructure through the integration of modern resources such as computers and internet access.

What is required to improve energy access?

In a broad sense almost all energy investments can be considered as contributing to improved energy access. Political reforms of the energy sector reform can enhance investments in power generation and distribution and in other forms of energy which may benefit the poor. Generation and Transmission projects may form the base for rural electrification. However, most of these investments have only an indirect effect on the access rates. In a more narrow sense only those activities can be considered to target on energy access which directly reach households without modern energy services.  
Many of the same elements necessary for any successful development intervention are applicable to the case of sustainable rural energy provisions. Developers should ensure that the technology itself is affordable and appropriate. Participation of the communities in question must be key at all stages and access to energy provisions and services should be equitable. In addition, local capacity should be built in order to ensure the long term sustainability and replicability of the scheme.

Affordability

Affordability and payment mechanisms are key considerations when assessing energy interventions. The poorest households often spend a disproportionate amount of their income on energy. Amongst those earning less than $3000 annually the percentage of total household expenditure spent on energy can be as high as 12%. In most cases it is the capital costs associated with shifting to a new energy carrier or end use technology that present the greatest barrier for poorer households. To remediate this, many payment mechanisms are possible ranging from subsidies to loans to upfront payments. These mechanisms need to be tailored to the specific needs of lower income households.

Most still favor conventional centralized energy schemes such as fossil fuel plants or large scale hydro power. However, for the many residing in rural locations a smaller scale decentralized approach is far more likely to meet their needs. It is often economically unfeasible to extend the national grid to low density rural communities, particularly when combined with the relatively low energy consumption of these populations. In such situations, decentralized sources are the only feasible option. When combined with the drive for "sustainable energy" renewables become particularly attractive.

i.e. energy technologies which do not supply to a national grid, can take a number of forms including diesel generators, micro-hydro schemes, wind turbines and solar photovoltaic. The most suitable technology is dependent on a combination of physical, economic and social factors.

Participation

A decentralized approach to energy interventions led by local needs and contexts is important, particularly with smaller communities and rural populations. Starting with the people and not the technology can lead to improved and more widely disseminated energy technologies. Even Principle 10 of the states that "Environmental issues are best handled with the participation of all concerned citizens. Each individual should have (information) and the opportunity to participate in decision making processes." Employing a participatory approach underpins every aspect of ensuring the success of an energy project.

Appropriate Technology

Technology in itself is not the cure-all to rural development issues. In fact, installation of the same technology within different contexts can often yield contrasting results. There is no best-fit solution to energy needs, and carriers must be weighed carefully against the local situation, capabilities and preferences.

For example the initial focus should be on modernizing existing needs before introducing new services. In many rural areas the main household energy need is for cooking purposes. The chief use of electricity is for lighting, which, although important, tends to be a much lower priority amongst households. Despite this rural electrification is often higher on the agenda of many governments and international agencies, possibly due to the relatively high profile and kudos of electrification programs compared to cooking.

Access and Equity

Access to modern energy services can potentially have a huge impact on poverty alleviation. Despite this not all energy projects have the desired effect on the communities in which they are implemented. Energy planners need to integrate social sustainability factors within projects including: the distribution of households able to access the resources; equality of access within these households; the potential marginalization of certain groups such as women, the young or old, the very poor; and the sustainability of the livelihoods promoted by energy access.

The energy needs of rural communities are not uniform. Income, cultural background, livelihood choices and family structure can all play roles in determining particular requirements and situations.

Intra-household energy use is often just as dynamic as that between households and once again a comprehension of specific needs, situations and behaviors is necessary. Women tend to bear the burden of the human energy crisis taking responsibility for activities such as pumping water, collecting firewood and other fuels, cooking and their family's healthcare (see table below). In addition there are often distinctions in access to credit or land as well as training opportunities. As a result men and women may have very different priorities regarding energy services.

Replicability

The replicability of a particular project is also key to ensuring long term success and proliferation especially in terms of the transfer of technology and knowledge to local communities. For example, has capacity been built sufficiently enough that local people are able to take responsibility for the maintenance and upkeep of the project? Have they acquired the necessary skills which will allow them to act as future facilitators on similar interventions in neighboring areas? Have local industries been developed and appropriate technologies been used such that local communities are not reliant on the import of materials?

Energy for Development

Energy access in itself is not a panacea to rural poverty issues. A successful intervention has the potential to stimulate development by modernizing existing needs and introducing new services. However the long term success of any energy project requires social sustainability to play a central role which can only be achieved by starting from the context of the users rather than the technology.

Further Information

UNDP-WHO report on energy access in developing countries: review of LDCs & SSAs (November 2009)

Poor People’s Energy Outlook 2010 by Practical Action

 

Typology of Energy Access 

Terminology	Service Package	kWh pppa	Typical System	Counting
FULL	all you'd want	500	grid	100% + report
ADVANCED	basic + tv, fan, video…	50	minigrid	100% + report
BASIC	light, radio, telephone	5	shs	100%
PARTIAL	less light, radio, phone	1-2	bcs	< 100%
MINIMUM	even less light	0,5	pico PV	<< 100%