Arising Inequalities through Energy Access - Revision history

Joanna Walther: /* Gender, Empowerment and Lifestyle */

2018-09-19T18:11:51Z

Gender, Empowerment and Lifestyle

Joanna Walther: /* Conclusion */

2018-09-19T17:59:50Z

Conclusion

Joanna Walther at 17:32, 19 September 2018

2018-09-19T17:32:47Z

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Joanna Walther at 17:30, 19 September 2018

2018-09-19T17:30:32Z

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Joanna Walther: /* Overview */

2018-09-19T17:10:07Z

Overview

Joanna Walther at 17:08, 19 September 2018

2018-09-19T17:08:41Z

Joanna Walther at 17:08, 19 September 2018

2018-09-19T17:08:09Z

Joanna Walther: /* Energy Access Brings Inequality */

2018-09-19T17:07:11Z

Energy Access Brings Inequality

Joanna Walther: /* Energy Access Brings Inequality */

2018-09-19T17:06:38Z

Energy Access Brings Inequality

Joanna Walther at 17:02, 19 September 2018

2018-09-19T17:02:41Z

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 Electricity can potentially take the place of traditional cooking fuels, which may improve the air quality and thus, the household’s environment (Fujii et al., 2018).<ref name="Fujii, T., Shonchoy, A.S., Xu, S., 2018. Impact of Electrification on Children’s Nutritional Status in Rural Bangladesh. World Dev. 102, 315–330.">Fujii, T., Shonchoy, A.S., Xu, S., 2018. Impact of Electrification on Children’s Nutritional Status in Rural Bangladesh. World Dev. 102, 315–330. </ref> Regarding children’s nutritional status, an improvement following electricity access has been observed. One reason for this could be the additional time and more flexible time use that electrified households have at hand for child care as well as improved [[Indoor Air Pollution (IAP)|indoor air quality]] (Fujii and Shonchoy, 2017).<ref name="Fujii, T., Shonchoy, A.S., 2017. Fertility and Rural Electrification in Bangladesh. Res. Collect. Sch. Econ.">Fujii, T., Shonchoy, A.S., 2017. Fertility and Rural Electrification in Bangladesh. Res. Collect. Sch. Econ.</ref> Secondly, fuel collection to the previous extent is not needed anymore in electrified households. Women who are in general responsible for this household chore, are not burdened with it anymore, thus lessening the burden on the mother’s body which in turn may lead to an improved nutritional status of her children (Fujii et al., 2018).<ref name="Fujii, T., Shonchoy, A.S., Xu, S., 2018. Impact of Electrification on Children’s Nutritional Status in Rural Bangladesh. World Dev. 102, 315–330.">Fujii, T., Shonchoy, A.S., Xu, S., 2018. Impact of Electrification on Children’s Nutritional Status in Rural Bangladesh. World Dev. 102, 315–330. </ref> Such betterments to the living environment of a household and the family’s health have far-reaching effects.'''Non-electrified households simply cannot improve their health situation to such a degree without access to electricity.''' Which consequences this entails for the community as a whole has not been researched so far and thus, remains unknown.
 == Gender, Empowerment and Lifestyle ==
-Access to energy can lessen the [[Gender Impacts of Energy Access|burden of women and girls]] since they are mostly responsible for fuel collection (Rathi and Vermaak, 2018; UNDP, 2012).<ref name="Rathi, S.S., Vermaak, C., 2018. Rural electrification, gender and the labor market: A cross-country study of India and South Africa. World Dev. 109, 346–359. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2018.05.016">Rathi, S.S., Vermaak, C., 2018. Rural electrification, gender and the labor market: A cross-country study of India and South Africa. World Dev. 109, 346–359. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2018.05.016</ref><ref name="UNDP, 2012. Policy Brief 3 - Gender and Energy. Glob. Gend. Clim. Alliance.">UNDP, 2012. Policy Brief 3 - Gender and Energy. Glob. Gend. Clim. Alliance.</ref> With access to electricity there is less hard unpaid physical labour for women and more possibilities to generate and increase income. Within a household this may lead to higher bargaining power on the woman’s side. '''Living in an electrified household can raise women and girls’ wellbeing through improvement of quality of life, health and thus empowerment.'''
+Access to energy can lessen the [[Gender Impacts of Energy Access|burden of women and girls]] since they are mostly responsible for fuel collection (ENERGIA, 2018; Rathi and Vermaak, 2018; UNDP, 2012).<ref name="Rathi, S.S., Vermaak, C., 2018. Rural electrification, gender and the labor market: A cross-country study of India and South Africa. World Dev. 109, 346–359. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2018.05.016">Rathi, S.S., Vermaak, C., 2018. Rural electrification, gender and the labor market: A cross-country study of India and South Africa. World Dev. 109, 346–359. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2018.05.016</ref><ref name="UNDP, 2012. Policy Brief 3 - Gender and Energy. Glob. Gend. Clim. Alliance.">UNDP, 2012. Policy Brief 3 - Gender and Energy. Glob. Gend. Clim. Alliance.</ref><ref name="ENERGIA, 2018. LEVERS OF CHANGE: How Global Trends Impact Gender Equality and Social Inclusion in Access to Sustainable Energy.">ENERGIA, 2018. LEVERS OF CHANGE: How Global Trends Impact Gender Equality and Social Inclusion in Access to Sustainable Energy.</ref> With access to electricity there is less hard unpaid physical labour for women and more possibilities to generate and increase income. Within a household this may lead to higher bargaining power on the woman’s side. '''Living in an electrified household can raise women and girls’ wellbeing through improvement of quality of life, health and thus empowerment.'''
 Acquisition of entertainment devices such as radios or TVs mostly comes hand in hand with energy access. In a study carried out in a village in South Africa, electrified households with a television both men and women reported a feeling of political empowerment and inclusion in a wider society through the information provided by news and other programmes (Matinga and Annegarn, 2013).<ref name="Matinga, M.N., Annegarn, H.J., 2013. Paradoxical impacts of electricity on life in a rural South African village. Energy Policy 58, 295–302.">Matinga, M.N., Annegarn, H.J., 2013. Paradoxical impacts of electricity on life in a rural South African village. Energy Policy 58, 295–302. </ref>
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 *Less domestic violence
 *Higher school enrolment of girls
-*More female representation in the labour force (IOB, 2013)<ref name="IOB, 2013. Renewable energy: access and impact: a systematic literature review of the impact on livelihoods of interventions providing access to renewable energy in developing countries. Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Netherlands, Policy and Operations Evaluation Department (IOB), The Hague.">IOB, 2013. Renewable energy: access and impact: a systematic literature review of the impact on livelihoods of interventions providing access to renewable energy in developing countries. Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Netherlands, Policy and Operations Evaluation Department (IOB), The Hague.</ref>
+*More female representation in the labour force (<span style="background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);">ENERGIA, 2018;&nbsp;</span>IOB, 2013)<ref name="IOB, 2013. Renewable energy: access and impact: a systematic literature review of the impact on livelihoods of interventions providing access to renewable energy in developing countries. Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Netherlands, Policy and Operations Evaluation Department (IOB), The Hague.">IOB, 2013. Renewable energy: access and impact: a systematic literature review of the impact on livelihoods of interventions providing access to renewable energy in developing countries. Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Netherlands, Policy and Operations Evaluation Department (IOB), The Hague.</ref><ref name="ENERGIA, 2018. LEVERS OF CHANGE: How Global Trends Impact Gender Equality and Social Inclusion in Access to Sustainable Energy.">ENERGIA, 2018. LEVERS OF CHANGE: How Global Trends Impact Gender Equality and Social Inclusion in Access to Sustainable Energy.</ref>
 These emancipatory advances might not necessarily spread to non-electrified households. Therefore, gradually creating societal asymmetry within a community which can eventually lead to discord and dividedness.
 == Education ==

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 Electricity can benefit enterprises in several ways. Regarding agrobusinesses, the use of electric irrigation pumps can increase crop productivity. Furthermore, businesses are able to work longer hours and use electrical appliances that can enhance productivity and efficacy (Khandker et al., 2009a).<ref name="Khandker, S.R., Barnes, D.F., Samad, H.A., 2009a. Welfare Impacts Of Rural Electrification: A Case Study From Bangladesh, Policy Research Working Papers. The World Bank.">Khandker, S.R., Barnes, D.F., Samad, H.A., 2009a. Welfare Impacts Of Rural Electrification: A Case Study From Bangladesh, Policy Research Working Papers. The World Bank.</ref> However, not all may be able to afford access to energy. [[Impact of Energy Access on Enterprises|Advantages of wealthy electrified businesses]] may lead to&nbsp;'''loss of business for non-electrified less wealthy firms and ultimately cause them to shut down''' (Harsdorff and Bamanyaki, 2009).<ref name="Harsdorff, M., Bamanyaki, P., 2009. IMPACT ASSESSMENT OF THE SOLAR ELECTRIFICATION OF MICRO ENTERPRISES, HOUSEHOLDS AND THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE RURAL SOLAR MARKET. Promot. Renew. Energy Energy Effic. Programme PREEEP gtz.">Harsdorff, M., Bamanyaki, P., 2009. IMPACT ASSESSMENT OF THE SOLAR ELECTRIFICATION OF MICRO ENTERPRISES, HOUSEHOLDS AND THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE RURAL SOLAR MARKET. Promot. Renew. Energy Energy Effic. Programme PREEEP gtz.</ref>
 = Conclusion =
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 However, if the reliability of the electricity connection is poor, electrified households are not better off than households without electricity. With unreliable connection the benefits cannot be recovered to the fullest and simply do not unfold.
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-|+ Overview of Impacts and Resulting Inequality Risks
+|+ Table 1. Overview of Impacts and Resulting Inequality Risks
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 In conclusion, '''electrifying communities with the aim to provide equal access to everyone is a highly delicate issue with numerous aspects, impacts and consequences that must be taken into consideration.''' Further research is urgently necessary to assess consequences of inequalities through energy access.
 = Further information =

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 = Overview =
 Access to electricity has a great impact on various areas of everyday life such as education, health and a household’s economic situation. These influences can go as far as causing societal change. However, in some electrified communities not all households are connected to electricity. This article examines the impacts of electricity access and how they may lead to inequalities between electrified and non-electrified households within a community. However, '''very few information is available concerning inequalities through energy access and it was concluded that further research is urgently necessary.'''
 = Energy Access Brings Inequality =

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	*[[Risks in Energy Access Projects\|For further information on social risks in energy projects please read following article on Risks in energy projects]]		*[[Risks in Energy Access Projects\|For further information on social risks in energy projects please read following article on Risks in energy projects]]
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	= References =		= References =

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 Access to electricity has a great impact on various areas of everyday life such as education, health and a household’s economic situation. These influences can go as far as causing societal change. However, in some electrified communities not all households are connected to electricity. This article examines the impacts of electricity access and how they may lead to inequalities between electrified and non-electrified households within a community. However, '''very few information is available concerning inequalities through energy access and it was concluded that further research is urgently necessary.'''
 = Energy Access Brings Inequality =
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 The graphs show the percentages of all connected households and the percentage of poor electrified households in Lao PDR and Philippines in the years since grid connection. In Lao PDR, 54% of all households connect in the first year, whereas only around 35% of poor households connect to the grid in the first 12 months. A similar outcome can be seen in the Philippines, however in the long run, the percentage of poor households getting connected does not increase in the same pace as the percentage of all household connections (World Bank, 2008).<ref name="World Bank, 2008. The Welfare Impact of Rural Electrification: A Reassessment of the Costs and Benefits. The World Bank.">World Bank, 2008. The Welfare Impact of Rural Electrification: A Reassessment of the Costs and Benefits. The World Bank.</ref> '''This shows that even over time a higher percentage of the poorer households still remains without access to the basic need electricity in some countries.''' Therefore, the question arises what kind of inequalities this situation of electrified and non-electrified households within a community causes.
 = Inequalities on Household Level =
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 These emancipatory advances might not necessarily spread to non-electrified households. Therefore, gradually creating societal asymmetry within a community which can eventually lead to discord and dividedness.
 == Education ==
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 Security and convenience are the most common benefits of electrification reported. Thus, it can be assumed that non-electrified households that cannot acquire this sense of security through electric lighting are constantly exposed to higher levels of stress feeling less secure than their neighbours. However, evidence for actual reductions in robberies and thefts in households with access to electricity could not been found (Bensch et al., 2012).<ref name="Bensch, G., Peters, J., Sievert, M., 2012. Fear of the Dark? – How Access to Electric Lighting Affects Security Attitudes and Nighttime Activities in Rural Senegal. https://doi.org/10.4419/86788424">Bensch, G., Peters, J., Sievert, M., 2012. Fear of the Dark? – How Access to Electric Lighting Affects Security Attitudes and Nighttime Activities in Rural Senegal. https://doi.org/10.4419/86788424</ref> '''Therefore, although households without electricity might feel less secure, no evidence was found that they really are.'''
 = Inequalities in Productive Use of Energy =
 Electricity can benefit enterprises in several ways. Regarding agrobusinesses, the use of electric irrigation pumps can increase crop productivity. Furthermore, businesses are able to work longer hours and use electrical appliances that can enhance productivity and efficacy (Khandker et al., 2009a).<ref name="Khandker, S.R., Barnes, D.F., Samad, H.A., 2009a. Welfare Impacts Of Rural Electrification: A Case Study From Bangladesh, Policy Research Working Papers. The World Bank.">Khandker, S.R., Barnes, D.F., Samad, H.A., 2009a. Welfare Impacts Of Rural Electrification: A Case Study From Bangladesh, Policy Research Working Papers. The World Bank.</ref> However, not all may be able to afford access to energy. Advantages of wealthy electrified businesses may lead to'''loss of business for non-electrified less wealthy firms and ultimately cause them to shut down''' (Harsdorff and Bamanyaki, 2009).<ref name="Harsdorff, M., Bamanyaki, P., 2009. IMPACT ASSESSMENT OF THE SOLAR ELECTRIFICATION OF MICRO ENTERPRISES, HOUSEHOLDS AND THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE RURAL SOLAR MARKET. Promot. Renew. Energy Energy Effic. Programme PREEEP gtz.">Harsdorff, M., Bamanyaki, P., 2009. IMPACT ASSESSMENT OF THE SOLAR ELECTRIFICATION OF MICRO ENTERPRISES, HOUSEHOLDS AND THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE RURAL SOLAR MARKET. Promot. Renew. Energy Energy Effic. Programme PREEEP gtz.</ref>
 = Conclusion =
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 In conclusion, '''electrifying communities with the aim to provide equal access to everyone is a highly delicate issue with numerous aspects, impacts and consequences that must be taken into consideration.''' Further research is urgently necessary to assess consequences of inequalities through energy access.
 = Further information =

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 <br/>
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 Many households connect to the grid once it becomes available. However, often the poor of a community are not able to afford the initial connection costs and remain without electricity (Standal, 2008; World Bank, 2008).<ref name="Standal, K., 2008. Giving Light and Hope in Rural Afghanistan - The Impact of Norwegian Church Aid’s Barefoot Approach on Women Beneficiaries. Univ. Oslo.">Standal, K., 2008. Giving Light and Hope in Rural Afghanistan - The Impact of Norwegian Church Aid’s Barefoot Approach on Women Beneficiaries. Univ. Oslo.</ref><ref name="World Bank, 2008. The Welfare Impact of Rural Electrification: A Reassessment of the Costs and Benefits. The World Bank.">World Bank, 2008. The Welfare Impact of Rural Electrification: A Reassessment of the Costs and Benefits. The World Bank.</ref>
-[[File:Figure 1. Growth of electrification rate over time after grid connection in Lao PDR and Philippines (World Bank, 2008)..PNG|thumb|center|700pxpx|Figure 1. Growth of electrification rate over time after grid connection in Lao PDR and Philippines (World Bank, 2008).]]<br/>
+[[File:Figure 1. Growth of electrification rate over time after grid connection in Lao PDR and Philippines (World Bank, 2008)..PNG|thumb|center|700px|Figure 1. Growth of electrification rate over time after grid connection in Lao PDR and Philippines (World Bank, 2008).]]
-Figure 1. Growth of electrification rate over time after grid connection in Lao PDR and Philippines (World Bank, 2008).
+<br/>
 The graphs show the percentages of all connected households and the percentage of poor electrified households in Lao PDR and Philippines in the years since grid connection. In Lao PDR, 54% of all households connect in the first year, whereas only around 35% of poor households connect to the grid in the first 12 months. A similar outcome can be seen in the Philippines, however in the long run, the percentage of poor households getting connected does not increase in the same pace as the percentage of all household connections (World Bank, 2008).<ref name="World Bank, 2008. The Welfare Impact of Rural Electrification: A Reassessment of the Costs and Benefits. The World Bank.">World Bank, 2008. The Welfare Impact of Rural Electrification: A Reassessment of the Costs and Benefits. The World Bank.</ref> '''This shows that even over time a higher percentage of the poorer households still remains without access to the basic need electricity in some countries.''' Therefore, the question arises what kind of inequalities this situation of electrified and non-electrified households within a community causes.